Sol. Answer is (c). Of all the options, this is the best.
Option (b) is factually wrong, and (d) is not that big an outcome (even today, Indian urban population is 34% of the total).
Under the British rule, manufacture and export of Indian handicrafts greatly reduced as the policies made by the British discouraged Indians from selling their products overseas, by levying very high duties. The number of Indian owned factories was miniscule, Indians generally didn't own anything.
Option (c) is correct. The British rule had pronounced and profound economic impact on India, as their policies turned India into a purely "colonial economy" to serve the needs of the British economy, not local needs. They did everything to commercialise the agriculture in India.
1. Commercialisation of Agriculture means that the agricultural crops and goods are produced by farmers for sale in the market and not for self consumption.
2. Since Indian industrial scene was not developed, Indian agri products were serving industries in Britain, France, Belgium and many other European countries of eighteenth century.
3. Agricultural products needed by the British industries or those that could fetch cash commercial gain to the British in the European or American market, were promoted.
4. Production of cotton in India was pushed, to provide raw and good quality cotton to the cotton-textile industries of Britain, growing fast. Hence, cotton growing area increase in India and its production increased manifold. Indigo and tea, coffee plantation were encouraged because these had a rich market abroad. Plantations were controlled by the British.
5. Jute received attention as jute products got a ready market in America and Europe.
6. Lot of policies were needed to effect such production - (a) The new land tenure system (permanent settlement and Ryotwari Settlement) had made agricultural land a freely exchangeable commodity. The Permanent settlement by giving ownership right to the zamindars created a class of wealthy landlords; they could make use of this ownership right by sale or purchase of land. (b) Crops like cotton, jute, sugarcane, ground nuts, tobacco etc. were increasingly cultivated.
7. The commercialization of agriculture was a forced process for Indian peasants. Farmers had to grow commercial crop on a specified tract of his land under the oppression of planters.
8. The misery of Indian farmers was further enhanced became the population of India was increasing every year, fragmentation of land was taking place because of the increasing pressure on land and modern techniques of agricultural production were not introduced in India.
9. The net result of the commercialization of Indian agriculture was that most of Indian farmers failed to produce even enough to provide them even two square meals a day.
10. The famous Indigo revolt in 1859 symbolised the tensions. Later, such rampant commercialization of Indian agriculture manifested in a series of famines claiming millions of lives.